Internet Addicition Essay Example for Free

Internet Addicition Essay Much evidence has been alleged that social pathologies are beginning to surface in cyberspace (i.e., internet addictions). A lot of controversy is surrounding the question, is there proof that the internet is being abused and misused by individuals on an everyday basis and should we consider this to be a major mental health problem? Key Arguments: * Why do people have attachment insecurity and dissociation with their lives to make them choose to be disorganized, and allow a fantasy world to take over resulting in problematic internet abuse. * How information and communication technologies changing our way of interacting with reality. * What are the psychological symptoms involving disturbed relationships with technologies emerging, how some are more affected than others. * How different forms of related dependence behaviours, such as an addiction to social networking, cybersex, online gambling, or web-based role-playing games are affecting our need to be on the internet. * How some games reward achievements and goals making the cyber game goals more important of that than reality goals. * Does social media, such as Facebook, Twitter, Myspace and other forms of cyber communication have detrimental effects related to internet addiction. * Internet Gambling, main reasons for internet addiction, however not just costing their health but impacting finances and crippling family relationships. Critical Analysis Article 1: Reference (2) Researchers have begun to examine the personal and social consequences associated with excessive online involvement. The present study examined college students problematic Internet use (PIU) behaviors Its specific aim was to investigate the links between PIU with both internalizing (depression, social anxiety) and externalizing (substance use and other risky behaviors) problems. Article 2: Reference (4) There are many psychological factors surrounding the present issue of internet addiction, using evidence such as Social Networking Sites (SNS)e.g., facebook , twitter etc, Massive Multiplayer Online games and Internet Gambling as my three key topics. The aim is to provide a clear and concise method about how individuals who consistently spend their time on the internet are having detrimental effects on their physical, social and psychological life. Article 3: Reference (5) There is an increasing need for the provision of both internet addiction prevention and care for any sufferers, psychologist should be weary of the dangers of internet abuse when youth present with anti-social, aggressive behaviours. Socialization in girls may be warped towards online contact and the user may beneï ¬ t from providing alternatives. The aim is to focus on internet-related addictive behaviours and how to include the use of suitable diagnostic tools, a detailed personal interview, a mental health status examination and information regarding the overt behaviours gathered by the surroundings. I want to engage the reader to believe that internet addiction is a real mental health issue, that effects youth all the way to late adolescent, whether it be an addiction though games, gambling, social media etc, there is evidence to say that individuals influenced by this addiction are not progressing in life, because excess use of a cyber world has become a major part of their li ves or taken over their lives. Structure: – Evidence addiction in Video Games (Kuss, Daria J; Griffiths, Mark D. Studies): Main conclusions stemming from this source – Psychological Evidence to Addiction (Griffiths, M Study Gencer, S L Koc, M Study): Main conclusions stemming from this source – Evidence addiction to Social Networking Systems (Kittinger, R., Correia, C J., Irons J G Article): Main conclusions stemming from this source References Bozkurt, H; Coskun, M; Ayaydin, H; Adak, I; Zoroglu, S S (2013). Prevalence and patterns of psychiatric disorders in referred adolescents with Internet addiction. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 67(5), pp. 352-359. De, L., Josepth, A. (2013). Problematic Internet Use and Other Risky Behaviours in College Students: An Applicationof Problem-Behaviour Theory. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 27(1), pp. 133-141. DOI: 10.1037/a0030823. Gencer, S L Koc, M. (2012) Internet abuse among teenagers and Its relations to internet usage patterns and demographics. Journal of Educational Technology Society. 15(2), pp. 25-36. Griffiths, M. (2010). Internet abuse and Internet addiction in the workplace. Journal of Workplace Learning, 22(7), 2010, pp. 463-472. Kittinger, R., Correia, C J., Irons J G (2012) Relationship Between Facebook Use and Problematic Internet Use Among College Student. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking. 15(6), pp. 324-327. Kuss, D J; Griffiths, M D., In ternet video game addiction: A systematic review of empirical research in the literature. Revue Adolescence. 30(1), 2012, pp. 17-49.

Will ethical behavior pay off in long run?

Will ethical behavior pay off in long run? Answer: I do believe that ethical behavior will pay off in the long run, however I do not believe it will pay off as much as people expect it to. People want ethical behavior to be widespread and change the world, but the truth is that some people will never be ethical. Plus, what is ethical to one person is unethical to another. It depends all in the way individuals interpret things. So although I think that consistently acting ethical and passing those beliefs down through the generations will pay off, I do not believe it will pay off as much as people want it to. Definition: Pearson Custom Publishing (Pearson, 1998-2002) defines ethics as the standards of conduct and moral judgment. Markula Center for Applied Ethics (1995-1998) defines ethics as those standards that compel one to refrain from committing crimes against another person such as stealing, murder, assault, slander, and fraud. It is also the standards that encourage honesty, integrity, compassion and loyalty. Ethics is not a religious principle, nor is it based on feelings about a particular problem. It cannot be defined as a legal practice because laws are created to protect rights, not manage ethical principles. While the definition may seem clear, ethics as a practice is somewhat ambiguous since interpretation plays a big part in how people perceive right from wrong. The Markala Center for Applied Ethics (1995-1998) states that in order to understand the meaning of ethics we must find answers the following questions, According to what standards are these actions right or wrong? What character traits (like honesty, compassion, fairness) are necessary to live a truly human life? Defining ethics is relatively easy compared to practicing ethics in the work place. Since the primary concern of most businesses is the bottom line, the ethical views may differ based on the type of business. Ethical views of employees may also differ from the views of the company. This can cause conflict among workers and management as companies strive to improve the bottom line. Personal ethics may be compromised in an effort to keep a job. Most Renowned companies like Enron, Satyam, Lehman Brothers, Tyco, Worldcom, Adelphia, Merrill Lynch, Morgan Stanley, Arthur Anderson à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. Came tumbling down. They were the darling of the masses as well as the bourses. They were seen to be responsible to employees, shareholders, suppliers, customers. All the reputation and trust built over years was wiped off due to unethical practices. For a business to be successful, it need not compromise with mortality. The more the business does something unethical or illegal the more likely that it will be caught. When ethical environment is poor, organizational performance suffers because of poor group dynamics and suppressed communication. In unethical organizations the employee morale is badly affected leaving organizations vulnerable to setbacks. Sound ethics is necessary precondition of any long term business enterprise. Excellence in business must exist on foundation of values that most of us hold dear. Without a base of shared values, trust and mutual benefits, todays national and international business would fall apart. Basic principles of integrity and fairness can build an enduring reputation. No separate ethical laws are required; we already have a plethora of laws encompassing every facet of business The Factories Act Indian Contract Act Sale of Good Act Companies Act The Consumer Protection Act The Indian Forests Act Prevention of Corruption Act The Mines and Minerals (Regulation Development Act) Agriculture Marketing Act Prescription Drug Marketing Act Accounting Act In the 21st century in the age of instant noodles and instant information, stakeholders can not be taken for granted and they evaluate the business on the following yardsticks Is the business complying with the law of the land? Does the business have a sense of propriety? Do product claims match reality? How forth Coming is the company with information sharing How does the company handle third party ethics How charitable is the company? How does the company react when faced with negative disclosures? Responsible Business Business should not be considered as a commercial activity aimed at maximizing profit. Profit to be maximized but not at the cost of responsibility to shareholders, suppliers and customers. Business should always take into consideration aspects of human rights and social responsibility. Wealth and knowledge must always be shared with the community as water in village pond unlike water in a private well. Pay Back Time Ethical behavior induces further ethical behavior. Employees who are treated ethically will be more likely to behave ethically with customers and business associates. Ethical behavior/decision making will overtake unethical or immoral practices in the long run. Ethical behavior results in confidence, stability of mind and soundness of position, restful sleep and hassle free life. Energies are freed for maximum productivity, creativity, flow of knowledge, information and reasoning capabilities. While practicing unethical behavior one has to engage in exhaustive subterfuge, resulting in diminished effectiveness and reduced success. Satisfy your Inner self Being ethical is doing the right thing when no one is watching Integrity has no need of rules. Real integrity is doing the right thing, knowing that nobodys going to know whether you did it or not-Oprah Winfrey. Most Reversed Tatas were among the first families in India to spread their wealth and wisdom for the benefit of humanity, some examples: In 1998 the Tata Mills failed to pay a dividend. The name Tata was at stake. Sir Jamesedji Tata risked his personal fortune to save a public company, displaying that people mattered to him before profits. In 1924 when Tata Steel was its lowest ebb with no money to pay co-workers, Sir Dorabji Tata risked his entire personal fortune of Rupees One Crore(of that time) which also included his wifes jewelry to get a loan from Imperial Bank of India, for public limited company to save the name of Tatas. One of the guiding principles of JRD Tata was- No success or achievement in material terms is worthwhile unless it serves the needs or interests of the country and its people and is achieved by fair and honest means. Business as a spiritual pursuit encapsulates JRDs philosophy and the ethos of the group he symbolized by stating that we (in Tatas) have retained the fire of idealism and in its glow we have come to recognize that no wealth or power can be more valuable than our dignity; no loss or profit can be more critical than loss of our credibility; no skills or qualification can substitute the integrity of our character. Conclusion Utilizing the principles of ethics in the decision making process will help to ensure that decisions made are fair and respect the rights of those parties involved. Unfortunately, ethical decision making is only as morally sound as the person making the decision. If the person making the decision is does not live by an ethical code, the decision will be swayed in the direction of that belief. Therefore, in order to make sound ethical decisions, decision makers must constantly evaluate their own beliefs and strive to live in an ethical manner and that will definitely pay off in longer run. References http://www.sptimes.com/News/110200/NIE/Treat_others_as_you_w.shtml http://www.powerhomebiz.com/books/ethics101.htm http://essaysforstudent.com/tag/ethical%20behaviour/page1.html http://www.allbusiness.com/buying_exiting_businesses/3503597-1.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical_leadership http://www.businessballs.com/ethical_management_leadership.htm 7. Fu, Jie, and Joshua Hall. Forthcoming. Fremont General Corporation. In Booms and Busts: An Economics Encyclopedia, Mehmet Odekon, editor. New York: M.E. Sharpe. 8. Morningstar. 2009. Our 2009 CEO of the Year Nominees. Online at: http://news.morningstar.com/articlenet/article.aspx?id=269242. Question 2 Within the business context business are expected to have good ethical values and act socially responsible. The problem is that the ethics of a business is a mixture of individual sets of ethics. This is why it is important to have good individuals as employees. It is also equally important that when you go to work somewhere that you feel like you share the values of those you work with. Ethics is not just talking about the right thing. It is doing what is right in every decision that is made. Based on the above observation discuss the impact on society that ethical leaders can make. American corporations dole out an estimated 15 billion dollars per year on training and consulting for up and coming mangers and leaders. Some target high performers and potential leaders within the organization. Others believe that leadership is more about what you do rather than who you are and, therefore, everyone in the organization is capable of becoming a leader. We have been arguing and writing about the science and practice of management since the early 1900s, and about leadership for at least 2000 years, all in an effort to demystify both. Is management, in fact, a practice, an art, or a science? Are leaders born or made? What do managers actually do? The argument continues. :- It is important to have good individuals as your employees but it is also important that those employees should be ethical because only they make the right decision and make others to follow. Some of the theories that tells us about the leadership ethics are being given to us by some of the philosophers as they are really heplfull they are given below:- Heifetzs Theory -Leadership involves authority to help followers uphold values in the workplace. Burns Theory Emphasizes the moral development of followers and maintains high standards of moral conduct. Greenleafs Theory Strong ethical overtones, true leadership is service to others. Moral development plays a vital role in building up good ethics. Acc. To john locke A new born child is a blank tablet on which life script can be written. Experience and learning shapes the content, structure and direction of a persons life. Examples of Great Ethical Leaders Cyrus the Great (590 BC-529 BC) The study of Cyrus the Great and establishment of his ethical Persian empire some 2500 years ago is a good indication that in our time the concept of world order based on ethics, ethical state, peace and harmony among nations are not an impossible goal and illusion. In this century the most fundamental and essential ingredients of an evolution towards these goals are democracy, freedom of expression, freedom of choice, freedom of religion, cultural toleration, human rights, political feedback mechanism, open trade policy, and open communications among people in this globe. The ethics of life are the pursuit of awareness for us and others. The ultimate goal is total awareness. Ethical Government is a means of achieving that goal by raising man to a higher state of total awareness. Ethical leaders can lead men toward Ethical Government and Society, which can lead man to total awareness. To increase mans power is always ethical. However, only men who use power to expand awareness are et hical. Men who use power to diminish awareness are unethical. Business ethics in the field As part of more comprehensive compliance and ethics programs, many companies have formulated internal policies pertaining to the ethical conduct of employees. These policies can be simple exhortations in broad, highly generalized language (typically called a corporate ethics statement), or they can be more detailed policies, containing specific behavioral requirements (typically called corporate ethics codes). They are generally meant to identify the companys expectations of workers and to offer guidance on handling some of the more common ethical problems that might arise in the course of doing business. It is hoped that having such a policy will lead to greater ethical awareness, consistency in application, and the avoidance of ethical disasters. An increasing number of companies also require employees to attend seminars regarding business conduct, which often include discussion of the companys policies, specific case studies, and legal requirements. Some companies even require their employees to sign agreements stating that they will abide by the companys rules of conduct. Many companies are assessing the environmental factors that can lead employees to engage in unethical conduct. A competitive business environment may call for unethical behavior. Lying has become expected in fields such as trading. An example of this is the issues surrounding the unethical actions of the Saloman Brothers. Not everyone supports corporate policies that govern ethical conduct. Some claim that ethical problems are better dealt with by depending upon employees to use their own judgment. Others believe that corporate ethics policies are primarily rooted in utilitarian concerns, and that they are mainly to limit the companys legal liability, or to curry public favor by giving the appearance of being a good corporate citizen. Ideally, the company will avoid a lawsuit because its employees will follow the rules. Should a lawsuit occur, the company can claim that the problem would not have arisen if the employee had only followed the code properly. Sometimes there is disconnection between the companys code of ethics and the companys actual practices. Thus, whether or not such conduct is explicitly sanctioned by management, at worst, this makes the policy duplicitous, and, at best, it is merely a marketing tool. To be successful, most ethicists would suggest that an ethics policy should be: Given the unequivocal support of top management, by both word and example. Explained in writing and orally, with periodic reinforcement. Doable.something employees can both understand and perform. Monitored by top management, with routine inspections for compliance and improvement. Backed up by clearly stated consequences in the case of disobedience. Remain neutral and nonsexist. The effectiveness of ethics officers in the marketplace is not clear. If the appointment is made primarily as a reaction to legislative requirements, one might expect the efficacy to be minimal, at least, over the short term. In part, this is because ethical business practices result from a corporate culture that consistently places value on ethical behavior, a culture and climate that usually emanates from the top of the organization. The mere establishment of a position to oversee ethics will most likely be insufficient to inculcate ethical behavior: a more systemic programmed with consistent support from general management will be necessary. The foundation for ethical behavior goes well beyond corporate culture and the policies of any given company, for it also depends greatly upon an individuals early moral training, the other institutions that affect an individual, the competitive business environment the company is in and, indeed, society as a whole. The caring leaders focuses on the welfare of : Customers : Employees : Shareholders : Community : Define problems : Find out best alternatives : Collect information Religious views on business ethics The historical and global importance of religious views on business ethics is sometimes underestimated in standard introductions to business. Particularly in Asia and the Middle East, religious and cultural perspectives have a strong influence on the conduct of business and the creation of business values. Examples include: Islamic banking, associated with the avoidance of charging interest on loans. Traditional Confucian disapproval of the profit-seeking motive. Quaker testimony on fair dealing.

Globalization And Trade Liberalisation Economics Essay

Globalization And Trade Liberalisation Economics Essay The current period in the world economy is regarded as period of globalization and trade liberalisation. In this period, one of the crucial issues in Development and International Economics is to know whether trade openness indeed promotes growth. With globalization, two major trends are noticeable: first is the emergence of multinational firms with strong presence in different, strategically located markets; and secondly, convergence of consumer tastes for the most competitive products, irrespective of where they are made. In this context of the world as a global village, regional integration constitutes an effective means of not only improving the level of participation of countries in the sub-region in world trade, but also their integration into the borderless and interlinked global economy.(NEEDS, 2005) Since 1950, the world economy has experienced a massive liberalisation of world trade, initially under the auspices of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), established in 1947, and currently under the auspices of the World Trade Organisation (WTO) which replaced the GATT in 1993. Tariff levels in both developed and developing countries have reduced drastically, averaging approximately 4% and 20% respectively, even though the latter is relatively high. Also, non-tariff barriers to trade, such as quotas, licenses and technical specifications, are also being gradually dismantled, but at a slower rate when compared with tariffs. The liberalisation of trade has led to a massive expansion in the growth of world trade relative to world output. While world output (or GDP) has expanded fivefold, the volume of world trade has grown 16 times at an average compound rate of just over 7% per annum. In fact, It is difficult, if not impossible, to understand the growth and development process of countries without reference to their trading performance. (Thirlwall, 2000). Likewise, Fontagnà © and Mimouni (2000) asserted that since the end of the European recovery after World War II, tariff rates have been divided by 10 at the world level, international trade has been multiplied by 17, world income has quadrupled, and income per capita has doubled. Incidentally, it is well known that periods of openness have generally been associated with prosperity, whereas protectionism has been the companion of recessions. In addition, the trade performance of individual countries tends to be a good indicator of economic performance since well performing countries tend to record higher rates of GDP growth. In total, there is a common perception that even if imperfect competition and second best situations offer the possibility of welfare improving trade policies, on average free trade is better than no trade. From the ongoing discussion, it is evident that trade is very important in promoting and sustaining the growth and development of an economy. No country can isolate herself from trading with the rest of the world because trade acts as a catalyst of growth. Thus Nigeria, being part of the world, is no exemption. For this reason, there is a need to thoroughly examine the nature of relationship between trade openness and output growth in Nigeria. Trade Openness And Output Growth: Historical Experience Of The Nigerian economy Today, Nigeria is regarded to have the largest economy in sub-Saharan Africa, excluding South Africa. In the last three decades, there has been little or no progress made in alleviating poverty despite the massive effort made and the many programmes established for that purpose. Indeed, as in many other sub-Saharan Africa countries, both the number of poor and the proportion of poor have been increasing in Nigeria. In particular, the 1998 United Nations Human Development Report declares that 48% of Nigerias population lives below the poverty line. According to the Report (UNDP, 1998), the bitter reality of the Nigerian situation is not just that the poverty level is getting worse by the day but more than four in ten Nigerians live in conditions of extreme poverty of less than N320 per capita per month, which barely provides for a quarter of the nutritional requirements of healthy living. This is approximately US$8.2 per month or US27 cents per day. Doug Addison (undated) further explained that the Nigerian economy is not merely volatile; it is one of the most volatile economies in the world. There is evidence that this volatility is adversely affecting the real growth rate of Nigerias gross domestic product (GDP) by inhibiting investment and reducing the productivity of investment, both public and private (see figure 1 below). Economic theory and empirical evidence suggest that sustained high future growth and poverty reduction are unlikely without a significant reduction in volatility. Oil price fluctuations drive only part of Nigerias volatility; policy choices have also contributed to the problem. Yet policy choices are available that can help accelerate growth and thus help reduce the percentage of people living in poverty, despite the severity of Nigerias problems. Figure During the period 1960-1997, Nigerias growth rate of per capita GDP of 1.45% compares unfavourably with that reported by other countries, especially those posted by China and the Asian Tigers such as Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan, and South Korea. Viewed in this comparative perspective, Nigerias per capita income growth has been woefully low and needs to be improved upon. (Iyoha and Oriakhi, 2002). In like manner, Ogujiuba, Oji and Adenuga (2004) wrote that the Nigerian economy has severally been described as a difficult environment for business. With a population growth of about 3%, it has been acknowledged that the current average output growth rate of less than 4% will see the country being poorer in the next decade. A study conducted by Iyoha and Oriakhi (2002) on Nigerias per capita GNP from 1964 to 1997 shows that it rose steadily from US$120 to US$780 in 1981. Thereafter, it fell almost steadily to US$280 in 1997. Thus, between 1964 and 1981, income per capita increased by 550% or at an annual average rate of 32.3% while between 1981 and 1997, it fell by 64.1% or at an annual average rate of 4%. It is worth noting that if income per capita had continued to increase beyond 1981 as it did before then, Nigerias GNP per capita would have equaled US$1,279 in 1997. The difference between US$280 and US$1,279, i.e., approximately US$1,000.00, is a rough measure of the cost to the average Nigerian of domestic macroeconomic policy mistakes and adverse international economic shocks. Likewise, in 1960 agricultural exports accounted for 70.8% of total exports while petroleum accounted for only 2.6%. Exports of other commodities like tin and processed goods amounted to 26.6% of total exports. By 1970 agric ultural exports only accounted for 33% of total exports while petroleum exports had started to establish dominance by exceeding 58% of total exports. By the time the oil boom began in earnest in 1974, petroleum exports accounted for approximately 93% of all exports. The relative share of agricultural exports in total exports had shrunk to 5.4% while other products accounted for the remaining 1.9%. Since 1974, with the exception of 1978 when the relative share of petroleum in total exports amounted to 89.1%, petroleums share in exports has consistently exceeded 90%. Indeed, since 1990, the relative share of petroleum in total exports has exceeded 96%. Agricultures contribution has fluctuated between 0.5% and 2.3% while the share of other products has fluctuated between 0.5% and 1.7%. Thus, petroleum exportation has totally dominated the economy and indeed government finances since the mid-1970s. Meanwhile, a puzzling and disturbing aspect of Nigerias export boom is that the growth it generated did not seem to be lasting or to have had a significant effect in changing the structure of the economy. For instance, in the 1970s, there was a major increase in measured GDP but the structure of the economy remained basically unchanged (see figure 2 below). This led Professor Yesufu (1995) to describe the Nigerian economy as one that had experienced growth without development. Figure During the period of 1970-1985, import substitution industrialization (ISI) strategy was a dominant feature of trade policy in Nigeria. The trade policy was generally inward oriented. Under this ISI strategy, infant manufacturing industries were protected using high tariffs, import quotas, and other trade restrictions like import licensing. Non-tariff barriers to trade such as import prohibitions were also utilized. During this period, trade policy was also adjusted in response to the exigencies of the balance of payments. Also, Nigeria was operating a fixed exchange rate regime under which the value of the naira was essentially tied to the U.S. dollar and gold. It is worth noting that the trade policy pursued during this period resulted in a rapid increase in manufacturing production and employment, particularly during the era of the oil boom (1975-1980) and that led to a rise in the share of manufacturing in Gross Domestic Product (GDP) from 5.6% in 1962/63 to 8.7% in 1986. (Iyoha and Oriakhi, 2002). In 1986, Nigeria adopted the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) of the IMF/World Bank in 1986. With the adoption of SAP in 1986, there was a radical shift from inward-oriented trade policies to outward-oriented trade policies in Nigeria. These are policies and measures that emphasize production and trade along the lines dictated by a countrys comparative advantage such as export promotion and export diversification, reduction or elimination of import tariffs, and the adoption of market-determined exchange rates. Some of the aims of the Structural Adjustment Programme adopted in 1986 were diversification of the structure of exports, diversification of the structure of production, reduction in the over-dependence on imports, and reduction in the overdependence on petroleum exports. The main SAP measures were: deregulation of the exchange rate trade liberalization deregulation of the financial sector adoption of appropriate pricing policies especially for petroleum products rationalization and privatisation of public sector enterprises and abolition of commodity Marketing Boards. However, as a result of trade liberalization gospel of the SAP, the Nigerian external sector has really grown in leaps and bound. For instance, the total domestic exports of Nigeria in 2006 amounted to à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¦7555141.32 million as against à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¦6621303.64 million in 2005 showing an increase of 14.10%. Domestic exports recorded negative growth rates in 1993(7.70%), 1994(45.5%), 1997(2.03%), 1998(38.48%), and 2001(27.06%). The largest increase in domestic exports was witnessed in 1995(448.42%). Total imports (c.i.f) stood at à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¦2922248.46 as against à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¦1779601.57 million in 2005 recording an increase of 64.20%. Total imports also recorded negative growth rates in 1994(45.72%), 1998(9.41%) and 2004(18.07%). The value of total merchandise trade amounted to à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¦10477389.78 million in 2006 as against à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¦45272.24 recorded in 1987. External trade was dominated by domestic exports between 1987 and 2006 averaging 67.17% while impo rts (c.i.f) averaged 32.82% (see figure 3 below). Consequently, the trade balance was positive between 1987 and 2006. Oil exports remains the dominant component of export trade in Nigeria between 1987 and 2006 accounting for about 93.33% of total domestic exports. On the other hand, non-oil exports accounted for a small value of 6.67% over the same period. (NBS report, 2008). Figure Therefore, it could be understood that SAP involved the deregulation and liberalization of the Nigerian economy. This policy thrust dovetailed nicely with the emerging international orthodoxy to the effect that deregulation and economic liberalization would yield the optimal allocation of scarce resources, reduce waste, and promote rapid economic growth in developing countries. Unfortunately, there has been no significant progress made in the achievement of these objectives. The economy is still excessively dependent on petroleum exports while the degree of openness of the economy has increased. The trade openness of the economy has significantly increased in the past three decades, with the trade-GDP ratio rising from 31.54% in 1970, to 46.91% in 1980, 57.23% in 1990, 88.16% in 1995, 85.26% in 2003 and 57.63% in 2007(see figure 4 below). Indeed, in the 1990s the ratio of trade to GDP has averaged 70%. This extreme openness of the economy could be disadvantageous in that it makes the country highly susceptible to internationally transmitted business cycles, and, in particular, internationally transmitted shocks (like commodity price collapse). A good example of this effect on the Nigerian economy is that of the global food crisis of 2007 and current global economic/financial crisis. Figure Statement of Research Problem Nwafor Manson (undated) noted that the Nigerias trade policy over the years has been determined by one/more of the following: Need to protect and stimulate domestic production (import capital goods at low prices etc) Need to ameliorate /prevent balance of payment problems Need to boost the value of the Naira Need to be competitive and enjoy the benefits of openness Need to increase revenue and International agreements. Today, as part of moving with the trend of globalization and trade liberalisation in the global economic system, Nigeria is a member of and a signatory to many international and regional trade agreements such as International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Trade Organisation (WTO), Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and so many others. The policy response of such economic partnership on trade has been to remove trade barriers, reduce tariffs, and embark on outward-oriented trade policies. Despite all her effort to meet up with the demands of these economic partnerships in terms of opening up her border, according to the 2007 assessment of the Trade Policy Review, Nigerias trade freedom was rated 56% making her the worlds 131st freest economy while the countrys GDP was rank 161st in the world in February, 2009. The economy has struggled vigorously to stimulate growth through openness to trade. In fact, it seems that as the country put greater effort to boost her economic growth by opening up to trade with the global economy, the more she becomes worse-off relative to her trading partners in terms of country output growth. Having reviewed the related literatures and considering the structure of the Nigerian economy as related to trade openness and output growth, we may then ask the following questions: Does trade openness have any significant impact on output growth in Nigeria? Is there any other macroeconomic variable that has significant impact on output growth in Nigeria? Is there any linear association (correlation) between trade openness and output growth in Nigeria? Is there long run relationship between trade openness and output growth in Nigeria? Has there been any significant structural change in output growth between the pre-SAP and post-SAP period in Nigeria? Objective of the Study The broad objective of this research work is to study, in its entirety, the relationship between trade openness and output growth in Nigeria. This broad objective can be subdivided into the following smaller objectives: To examine the impact of trade openness on output growth in Nigeria. To identify other internal and external macroeconomic shocks that determine output growth in Nigeria. To determine the linear association (correlation) between trade openness and output growth in Nigeria. To ascertain the possibility of long run relationship between trade openness and output growth in Nigeria. To determine the possibility of structural changes (if any) in output growth between the pre-SAP and post-SAP period. Statement of Research Hypothesis In view of the foregoing study, with respect to trade openness and output growth in Nigeria, the following null hypotheses will be tested: Ho: Trade openness does not have any significant impact on output growth in Nigeria. Ho: There is no other macroeconomic variable (internal and external) that have significant impact on output growth in Nigeria. Ho: There is no linear association (correlation) between trade openness and output growth in Nigeria. Ho: There is no long run relationship between trade openness and output growth in Nigeria. Ho: There is no significant structural change in output growth between the pre-SAP and post-SAP period. Justification of the Study Nigeria is currently undergoing a series of transformation in every sector of the economy, including the external sector of the economy. The countrys economic policy in the last two decades had one dominating theme which is an integral part of the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) trade liberalization. This policy was espoused on the argument that it enhances the welfare of consumers and reduces poverty as it offers wider platform for choice from among wider variety of quality goods and cheaper imports. Today, there are many existing literature on the topical issue of trade openness and growth of which some support the axiom that openness is directly correlated to greater economic growth with the main operational implication being that governments should dismantle the barriers to trade. The focal point of this research work is to identify the short comings and benefits of this argument as well as check the validity of this mainstream axiom in Nigeria in the presence of various i nternal and external shocks. Significance of the Study The role of international trade in the developmental journey of an economy can not be overemphasized, especially with the current trend of globalization. Nigeria, being part of the global village, is not left out of this world development. This research work is carried out to study how trade openness has influenced the performance of the Nigerian economy through output growth in the presence of other internal and external shocks. The findings of this research work transcend beyond mere academic brainstorming, but will be of immense benefit to federal agencies, policy makers, intellectual researchers and international trade think tanks that occasionally prescribe and suggest policy options to the government on trade related issues. It will also help the government to see the effectiveness of trade liberalization policy on the economic growth of the nation over the years. This research work will further serve as a guide and provide insight for future research on this topic and related field for students who are willing to improve on it. It will also educate the public on various government policies as related to trade issues. Scope and Limitation of the Study This research work span through the period of 1970-2007 (38 years), and is within the geographical zone of Nigeria. Thus, it is a country-specific research. This research exercise, like every other research work, is really a rigorous one that consumes much time and energy especially in the area of data sourcing, data computation and modeling. The work is relatively limited base on time and financial constraints, data availability, precision of data and data range, and methodology adopted which could further be verified by future research. Nevertheless, the researchers have properly organized the research so as to present dependable results which can aid effective policy making and implementation at least for the time being. Chapter Summary and Prospect In this chapter, we have introduced the concept of openness and output growth, the problems this study seeks to address, the targeted objective of the study and the hypotheses this study seeks to verify. We have also explained the justification for and the significance of this study as well as the scope and limitations of this study. In the next chapter, we shall review the related literature, both theoretical and empirical, as well as limitations of the previous studies. CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction Openness refers to the degree of dependence of an economy on international trade and financial flows. Trade openness measures the international competitiveness of a country in the global market. Thus, we may talk of trade openness and financial openness. Trade openness is often measured by the ratio of import to GDP or alternatively, the ratio of trade to GDP. It is now generally accepted that increased openness with respect to both trade and capital flows will be beneficial to a country. Increased openness facilitates greater integration into global markets. Integration and globalisation are beneficial to developing countries although there are also some potential risks. (Iyoha and Oriakhi, 2002). Trade openness is interpreted to include import and export taxes, as well as explicit non-tariff distortions of trade or in varying degrees of broadness to cover such matters as exchange-rate policies, domestic taxes and subsidies, competition and other regulatory policies, education polic ies, the nature of the legal system, the form of government, and the general nature of institutions and culture (Baldwin, 2002). 2.2 Theoretical Literature The issue of whether trade and increased openness would lead to higher rate of economic growth is an age-old question which has sustained debate between pro-traders and protectionists over the years from classicalists like Adam Smith, John Stuart Mill, to John Maynard Keynes, Raul Prebisch, Hans Singer, Paul Krugman and so on. Theorists from both theses have influenced policy in many countries and at various stage of development. There has also been a huge policy debate about what constitute good and bad policies for these countries, especially the developing countries including Nigeria. Should these countries completely open up to international trade? Or should they instead, at least temporarily, protect some or all of their industries from the world market forces? Formal arguments have been developed pro and con of both theses. These arguments were discussed extensively by Maskus (1998) thus: Argument One: Economies will grow faster if they protect domestic industry from import competition. This is a general statement of the Infant-Industry Hypothesis, which states that manufacturing sectors in underdeveloped economies must be sheltered from competition in order to have the incentive to invest capital, learn how to produce goods efficiently, take advantage of scale economies through large-scale production, and develop innovative or distinctive products that can be sold on world markets. The broadest application of the infant-industry argument for isolation from global markets emerged in the widespread use of import substitution policies in developing countries. A policy of import substitution for industrialization purposes (ISI) involves extensively controlling virtually all components of the economy in order to direct resources into manufacturing. It is an old idea, but its modern origins come from economists writing in the 1950s and 1960s (Arthur Lewis, Raul Prebish, Hans Singer, Gunnar Myrdal, others), who claimed that developing economies faced two fundamental probl ems. First, their status as primary-commodity exporters left them vulnerable to world swings in commodity prices (e.g., oil, sugar, tin, copper, etc.) and also that over the long run, commodity prices would decline relative to manufacturing prices and costs of new technologies. Second, because developing countries have high population growth rates and abundant labor supplies, it would be difficult to absorb workers into primary production. Rather than waiting for comparative advantage to push resources into labor-intensive manufacturing, it would be better to force industrialization through ISI policies. Such programs became common in the 1950s throughout Latin America, Africa, the Middle East, South Asia and Southeast Asia. They are still much in evidence in many countries. Policies imposed in a thorough ISI program include the following. Escalating tariffs, or tariff rates that rise with the stage of processing. Thus, low tariffs on primary goods, medium tariffs on industrial inputs and machinery, and high tariffs on final goods, particularly consumer goods such as food products, clothing, cosmetics, automobiles, and so on. Such tariff structures establish very high effective rates of protection for final goods, meaning that auto factories and so on were strongly protected. Considerable taxes on production of primary commodities in order to push labor out of the countryside and into the cities for developing manufacturing. Such taxes include tariffs on imported fertilizers, price ceilings at very low rates for crops, export taxes on farm goods, and so on. For these reasons, ERPs in agriculture were often strongly negative, vastly reducing output and productivity in farming. Fixing exchange rates at expensive levels (i.e., overvaluing the domestic currency), again in order to discourage primary exports and production and also to reduce the cost of imported inputs for manufacturing sectors. Such exchange rates tended to generate large trade deficits, forcing governments to borrow from abroad and build up debt. It also required setting and controlling multiple exchange rates, so that capital and input transactions could take place at cheaper rates than goods imports in order to protect domestic industry. Extensive systems of quotas and licensing for imports and production. Rigorous controls on FDI coming into the country, requiring foreign firms to meet certain performance requirements. Also controls on imported technologies, with governments placing restrictions on costs of technology and under what terms it would be transferred to local firms. Extensive nationalization of industry to establish state-owned enterprises (SOEs) in key sectors, such as petroleum, steel, chemicals, construction, banking, and airlines. These industry champions received government subsidies and were favored in the process of capital allocation, typically being allowed to borrow at very low rates from state banks (usually at negative real interest rates). To some degree these policies successfully pushed industrialization, but rarely of an efficient kind. Developing countries are full of large manufacturing operations that operate at inefficiently low scales because market sizes are small and product quality is not good enough to penetrate export markets, which is a costly activity. These operations are partly supported by government subsidies, generating vested interests in keeping them going and opposing liberalization. Relative prices of goods are heavily distorted by the various subsidies, trade restrictions, and licenses. Other unintended effects include massive shifts of workers into the cities and worsened sanitation and health problems. However, the question is whether such policies have limited growth. Evidently many other factors are at work. What seems clear is that such countries have not performed well in terms of acquiring and improving technologies, have lagged significantly behind in product innovation and adaptation, have inefficient and distorted agricultural and manufacturing sectors, and have not performed well in building human capital, physical capital, and infrastructure. Some relevant figures are given later. Thus, these sources of growth have likely been limited in countries pursuing ISI programs. Argument Two: Countries will grow faster if they are open to international competition This is the basic hope underlying trade-reform programs that involve extensive liberalization of trade and investment barriers, reduction of controls on technology transfers, unification of tariff rates and domestic tax rates, removal of consumption and production subsidies, and deregulation of industry and privatization of state-owned enterprises. It is the essential philosophy behind World Bank loans to facilitate restructuring and IMF lending packages that require microeconomic structural reforms. It is also a very old idea (going back to Adam Smith and David Ricardo at least) but its modern translation into trade liberalization largely began with the reforms in Chile in the 1970s advocated by the Chicago School of economists (e.g. Milton Friedman, George Stigler). A somewhat different version of this approach is (to contrast it with ISI) called export promotion, which is the policy followed largely by East Asian and Western countries. These approaches are not necessarily liberal in the sense of free competition. There are many examples of sheltered and subsidized domestic firms or industrial groupings; much of this protection was designed to encourage infant industries to mature and export. However, the key component of export promotion programs is not to discourage exports, as is done under ISI programs. The basic policies under export promotion include the following. Properly valued exchange rates, meaning exchange rates that do not discriminate between imports and exports. This is accomplished either through flexible rates or pegged exchange rates that are allowed to move gradually to account for inflation differences between the country in question and major export markets. In this sense, the exchange rate did not impose any tax on exports. Remove taxes on export production and, indeed, make the tax and tariff system as neutral as possible across sectors of production. Thus, while in most of these nations agricultural production was protected from import competition, in manufacturing there was relatively little discrimination across types of goods. It is for this reason that export-promotion policies are far closer to open trade policies than are ISI policies. There were certainly major exceptions to this rule in many export-promotion countries, however. Rather than rely largely on import protection to promote infant industries, some active forms of export promotion in manufacturing and high-tech sectors were taken, including favorable allocation of loans and subsidies and rebates of import tariffs paid on imported industrial inputs. Recognizing that exporting is harder than cutting off imports because exports require improving levels of quality and considerable foreign marketing costs, East Asian firms have emphasized quality control and access to foreign technologies on favorable terms. Governments have supported this by ensuring strong public educational efforts, investments in infrastructure for exports, and technology transfer policies that attempted to force inward technology flows at cheap prices. Recent problems in some countries (especially Asian countries) indicate that while export-promotion strategies may have contributed to growth, they ultimately cause serious problems of overproduction (excess capacity) relative to the economys ability to consume commodities. (Maskus, 1998) The World Bank favors lifting the protectionist measures that have locked low-income countries out of rich-country export markets. In fact, most international bodies (WTO, IMF, World Bank etc) strongly support the case for trade openness and financial liberalisation when setting up programs for developing countries or when multilateral meetings occur. Some of the arguments put forward in favour of increased openness to trade include the following: Specialization: Gains from specialisation in the good in which the country has a comparative advantage such as productivity gains, lowe

Ronald Reagan Essay -- essays research papers fc

Reckoning with Reagan:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ronald Reagan was more than a president. He was a phenomenon. Since he left office in 1989, many authors have tried to effectively identify who this man really was. He was an icon to some, and an enigma to others. He stood up to the worst economic, domestic, and international threats of the time and yet, took naps in the middle of cabinet meetings. At the height of his popularity in 1986, he had, as Time magazine put it, â€Å"found America's sweet spot. â€Å" Reagan had ideals of what he felt America should be like, and made it his number one goal to share his unrelenting optimism with every person in the country. He pledged to bring Americans a â€Å"little good news.† and created a strong bond with the public. Throughout his eight years in office, he continually motivated and energized his supporters while at the same time, confounded and mystified his detractors. Reagan stood tall among the thirty-nine presidents that preceded him, and was one of the most popular leaders of the twentieth century. In his book, Reckoning with Reagan, Schaller attempted to reconcile the facts and myths that surrounded Reagan during his entrance into public service, his back to back terms as governor of California, and his eight years as President of the United States. Although, he briefly outlined Reagan's earlier years as a Hollywood actor, corporate spokesperson and motivational speaker, Schaller concentrates on the presidency and how Reagan impacted America to such a degree, that it would be felt for years to come. And for the first time since Kennedy, an era would be defined by a single man: Ronald Reagan.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Though he would stop short of saying that he was born in a log cabin, Ronald Reagan grew up in humble beginnings. The son of an alcoholic father whom couldn't hold down a job and a religious mother, Reagan was encouraged at an early age by his mother to act in school plays. An activity in which the young Reagan showed much promise. Because of a difficult home life, Reagan created a distance between the reality of his troubled surroundings and the fantasy of how things should be. Many believed that such mental redirection at this early age played a big role in his vision and ideals for America years later.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After he graduated high school in 1932, Reagan went to wor... ...le of a charasmatic leader in that he remained above the fray. That ability was not so much due to his personal political saavy, but rather, the public's refusal to allow him to be portrayed in any negative light, similar to a famous movie star or professional athelete caught in a compromising situation that would spell disaster for the average citizen. Instead of public outrage, the celebrity is met with sympathy and understanding as well as an odd public comdemnation of his or her accusors. As Schaefer charasmatic authority, he defined Reagan. â€Å"Charasmatic authority is derived more from the beliefs of followers than from the actual qualities of leaders. So long as people perceive a leader as having qualities setting him or her apart from ordinary citizens, that leader's authority will remain secure and often unquestioned.† (p. 431). Bibliography   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Shaller, Michael. Reckoning with Reagan: America and Its President in the 1980s. Oxford University Press: New York, 1992. Shaefer, Richard T. Sociology, Eighth Edition. McGraw-Hill: New York, 2003

The Civil Rights Movement and the Decline in Racisim :: Racism, Civil Rights, Discrimination

Throughout the 60's, racism changed dramatically in a various number of ways. Changes involved the passage of bills into laws as well as involving the overall attitude of the people. Racism was largely based on white people's hatred towards blacks until the 1960's, when several major events increased problems both from whites towards blacks and from blacks towards whites. The biggest Social protest of the 1960's was the civil rights movement. It began on February 1, 1960, in Greensboro, North Carolina when four black students seated themselves at the whites only lunch counter and refused to leave until they were served. After the first sit-in, it began happening all over the country and by the end of the year, 70,000 blacks staged sit-ins. Throughout this, over 3,600 people were arrested. This movement was successful, but it demonstrated non-violent protests. After this movement began, several organizations developed. Such programs include; The NAACP, SNCC, SCLC, CORE, and the Black Panthers. The NAACP stands for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, while the SNCC stands for the Student Non Violent Coordinating Committee. The SCLC stands for the Southern Christian Leadership Conference who started a segregation protest traveling to Birmingham, Alabama who had the reputation of one of the most segregated cities in the United States. On May 2, 1963, over six hundred protesters were arrested, and t he majority was teenage high schoolers. The next day, the police chief, Bull Conor, ordered his police officers to shoot the protestors with high-powered water hoses ordered their dogs to attack them. By the end of the march, only twenty people reached the City Hall. After the Birmingham demonstrations, the blacks gained support from the people from the North because they witnessed how violent the South was towards the black protestors. The CORE is for the Congress of Racial Equality and started the first series of Freedom Riders in May of 1961. They traveled on two interstate buses starting in Washington D.C. and traveling to New Orleans. The people who disagreed with this movement threw stones and burnt these traveling buses in order to show their dislikeness of the blacks. All of these programs promoted rights for African Americans. The Black Panthers was organized by the SNCC and became popular in the late 60's. It was founded in Oakland, California after they protested the bill that outlawed carrying loaded weapons in public.

Surfing, Duke Energy, and the Coastal Alliance :: Personal Narrative Environment Essays

Surfing, Duke Energy, and the Coastal Alliance On my way out to the beach I still had no idea what I was going to do for my fifth essay. As my surfing buddy and I exited the freeway and entered the town of Morro Bay I saw three giant gleaming smoke stacks surfacing over the top of the hill. As we got closer to the beach the three smoke stacks gave way to a massive power plant that was a mere fifty feet from the water’s edge. It was surrounded by a fifteen foot cement wall and cameras everywhere. I thought what a perfect topic for my paper. As we parked and started to suit up I noticed there was an abundance of strange looking birds all around us. My friend explained to me that the whole area is an estuary preserve that protects endangered bird species. With the towering Morro Rock looming overhead we began to wade into the surf. After I made it out past the break I turned around and saw a giant sign against the harbor wall that said â€Å"Welcome to Morro Bay† with the towering smoke stacks grasping hold of the tiny harbor like three long fingers. By the time we were done surfing I was determined to research this area further. Not just for this paper, but the fact that there was no way that the power plant is helping the estuary or the ocean. After having the opportunity to surf Morro Bay, I felt it my responsibility to protect these waters so that future generations might enjoy it. It turns out that there is a huge controversy going on because Duke Energy is attempting to get a permit to remodel the entire power plant. The official Duke Energy website starts off by saying that remodeling projects are going to begin shortly. I noticed that the plant was nearly fifty years old so it seemed logical that the plant needs renovation, but I was not convinced so I read on. Already treading on thin ice the writer tried to insert a little blurb about seawater intake at the end of the paragraph.

Workers Trapped After Chilean Copper Mine Collapse” Article Found in the Electronic Reserve Readings

The use of the Career Interest Profiler displayed that I was Teamwork centered portraying a work culture towards: working in a close knit team, working closely with customers and suppliers, lots of interdependence, friendly and supportive colleagues, cooperative and sharing atmosphere. The next trait of the Career Interest Profiler displayed that I was an Expert portraying a work culture towards: varied and ground breaking work, high emphasis on specialist expertise and lots of specialist roles, high engagement-people encouraged to express opinion, innovation, creative atmosphere, control your own work schedule and organization, dynamic an changing environment. The last trait of the Career interest Profiler displayed that I was Supportive portraying a work culture towards: secure, stable environment, clearly defined jobs, goals and expectation, no conflicting demands, considerate management, focus on employee welfare, lots of personal development and feedback, lots of recognition and celebration of success, and fun place to work. The Career interest Profiler reviled that I am a leader whom can work under pressure and also create an employee friendly working environment. A person who put people first and would treat employees the way I want to be treated. As a Navy Officer, Basketball player and today in my career field I’m often counted on to lead people. My approach when working with people has always been to be honest, fair and treat a person with respect and acknowledge the positive in a person because everyone will tell you when you’re doing something wrong. My Strengths in Competencies displayed I was very strong in Innovating, Coping with Pressure, and Adapting to Change. These Competencies top my measuring scale with four bars out of possible five. The Applying Expertise and Adhering to Values on the measuring scale showed two out of five possible bars and the last Competency Strength displayed Strategizing which displayed one out of five possible bars. After reviewing my Strengths in Competencies, it demonstrated to me that I can work under pressure, meet deadlines, and confirmed that I can accept change. This is true because working in my profession the Laws are always changing and the technology is always changing as well. The Work Culture Preferences displayed that I was Artistic, Conventional and Enterprising. It also showed my Career matches being Business and financial Operations, Management, Sales and Related, Legal, Community and Social Service, Personal Care and Service. This is very unique because I gave 6 years to the Military as public service, worked as a Youth Detention Officer, Youth Worker and now for the Department of Veterans Affairs as an Advocate for Veterans. The possible employers that would fit with my provided competencies would be a College, University, High school, Government, City of State Office, Police Department, Prison, Department Store, and Owner of Private business. The possible jobs that would align with my work culture preferences would be a Head basketball Coach, Detective, Police Captain, EEO Officer, and Human Resources Specialist, or Management staff. The ways in which understanding my personal competencies will help me improve my critical thinking skills is to evaluate all information I receive before making a decision on any level. This is best described for me, as receiving all the needed facts before I make any critical decision. My competencies strengths also are utilized in all efforts to help me evaluate an argument. The best example of me using my competencies strengths during an argument is when I’m engaged with a veteran who is irate, and also talking very loudly during an interview for VA benefits at my place of work. I always take control of the situation, by speaking in a much lower tone and always letting the veteran finish his statement. Most often by acknowledging the veteran and having the facts when the veteran is presenting sometimes calms them down.